Appropriateness of Standard Personality Tests

Appropriateness of Standard Personality Tests Critically evaluate the statement that it is inappropriate for psychologists to use standard personality tests to interpret and understand the Behaviour of Indigenous people such as Aboriginal Australians Standard personality testing is the name given to any form of test designed to determine different aspects of the subjects’ personality or emotional state (Merriam-webster.com, (2014). This is achieved through the designing of many smaller tasks such as questions within a questionnaire. The vast majority of these tests are designed by western psychologists, which creates an issue when they are administered to Indigenous peoples such as the Tsimane tribe and the Indigenous of the Philippines, as the values held by the differing societies are varied and therefore the tests do not measure all facets of their personality, notable problems arise from differences in culture and language. This paper will focus in particular on one standardized personality test, the Five Factor Model (FFM) that is commonly referred to as the OCEAN testing as it tests Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism(Goldberg, 1990,) , each with smaller sub-categories referred to as facets. Although it is said to be fairly robust cross culturally the test is still synthesized for western use. This paper will assess the appropriateness of using the FFM of testing on Indigenous peoples such as Aboriginal Australians and the Tsimane tribe. As the FFM was established by †¦ , a western psychologist, in †¦. And since then, debate has arisen in regards to the appropriateness of using this testing on Indigenous cultures. There are two main concerns when it comes to appropriateness, the difference in traits and behavior between cultures, and researchers basing their experiments of western qualities (Church, in press; Enriquez, 1979). To attempt to address these concerns, an experiment was conducted on the Tsimane people. To ensure this testing was reliable the test was translated to Spanish by translators. The test was conducted from Jan 2009 to December 2010 and was taken by 632 adults 48% female and 52% male. The administrative researchers faced many issues due to the alteration of words that had no equivalent in Spanish. Problems occurred with specific questions during the study due to interpretation of language, four items proved to be difficult to translate, whilst one was removed. The removal of question 30 ( â€Å"has an active imagination† ) encompass the main barrier affecting the experiment, this being the interpretation of Tsimane language and their specific phrases. There was no term that would be consistently understood by the tsiname people, highlighting the tester’s lack of cultural competence. Although attempting to properly convey the questions through the use of bilingual speakers of Spanish and English, the translators were not able to. (Ramà ­rez-Esparza, Gosling, Benet-Martà ­nez, Potter, Pennebaker, 2006).(3) Overall the success of the five-factor model was generally low in relation to the indigenous group Tismane. Internal reliability proved to be a problem. Out of the five factors 4 factors tested moderately reliable where as neuroticism tested low on Cronbachs scale at 0.31. . Overall the lack of understanding between researchers and respondents mainly language played a pivotal role in the result area. The modified FFM although producing moderate results did not reach appropriate standards of the Cronbachs scale. It is shown that a standardized model does not work efficiently with the Tsimane group, highlighting the inappropriateness of using standardized testing on indigenous populations. A test was conducted in the Phillippines to determine how imported personality test would fair when administered to indigenous societies, and if the NEO–PI–R (Costa McCrae, 1992) a western personality psychometric, would generate similar scores in the Philippines in comparison to the American scores. The test was administered to 511 university students. Four tests were used three of which were indigenous test being (along with sample sizes) â€Å"Panukat ng Pagkataong Pilipino(PPP;n= 387),Panukat ng Mga Katangian ng Personalidad(PKP;n= 413),Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao(PUP;n= 386), and one being westernized, Filipino NEO–PI–R (n= 398)† (Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lape~na, Carlota del Pilar, 2002) The NEO–PI–R (Costa McCrae, 1992) is comprised of 5 factors, coinciding with the BigFivedimensions, along with 6 facet per domain. McCrae et al. (1998). The sample obtained by (Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lape~na, Carlota del Pilar, 2002) provided medium to high internal reliability in relation to the 6 facets of the 5 factors, however the median alpha was low (.61) in comparison to the result of (.70) reported by McCrae et al. The Openness to Values and Openess to feelings facets scored results of (a=. 22) and (a=. 44) , highlighting the disparity between certain test items and its ability to measure the Philippines social dimensions. Problems arose due to translation equivalency in relation to 8 of the facet scales where correlation proved to be an issue with items. (Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lape~na, Carlota del Pilar, 2002) The PPP consists of 210 items along with 19 scales. The basis of the personality constructs were derived from verbal descriptions of traits and behaviours by Filipino respondents and literature specific to their heritage by Carlota (1985), it was then categorized by Carlota (1985) into three groups, (interpersonal, personal and intellect). Creators of PUP designed the test to gauge Filipino traits, and behaviours (Enriquez Guanzon, 1985). The PUP was created using Filipino specific proverbs, Filipino dictionaries and interviews with university students..(Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lape~na, Carlota del Pilar, 2002). It is to be noted however that the PUP scale has had no reliable data from previous experiments. Researches used 8 of the 19 original items, 5 of which were related to well being and religious behaviours, and 3 related to taboo acts of the the Philippines culture The PKP consists of 253 items. (Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lape~na, Carlota del Pilar, 2002) The test was created through the use of a lexical approach which allows the PKP to generate a sense of internal reliability.(Church,Katigbak, Reyes, 1996) The information is derived directly from the correspondents, these being Filipino university students and judges. The test provided a reliability range of (.85-.95) (Churchet al. (1998) The results of The PUP proved to be unreliable and therefore not included in the results table, the use of joint factor analysis showed several similarities and differences between the NEO PI-V, PKP and PPP. The PKP test showed several connections with three of the Big Five Dimensions, this being the factors agreeableness Conscientiousness Extraversion however the religiosity scale only showed medium reliability as the NEO-PI-V does not have religiosity as a component, highlighting the need for further augmentation of the Five Factor Model to asses religiosity. The PPP test showed a resemblance to four factors of the Five Factor Model, however no neuroticism dimension was found through analysis of the PPP scale alone. In most of the tests the indigenous instruments provided higher validity in comparison to the imported NEO-PI-R. (Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lape~na, Carlota del Pilar, 2002). The Big Five dimensions do show resemblance to indigenous constructs emphasizing its cross-cul tural capabilities however interpretation of language and culture proves to be a barrier. Problems occurring in the Philippines indigenous dimension could also include what is categorized as indigenous; there were direct correlations between several facets of the questionnaire between the American and Philippines sample. The questionaries however were administered to university students, which could possibly have reasonable understanding of western constructs aiding them in interpretation of the question, undermining their defined category of indigenous. This factor questions the validity of the experiment, as it can be debated whether the participants successfully represent indigenous personalities, if not results extracted from the experiment can be proven somewhat irrelevant as the universal quality of standardised personality tests are not being fully explored. (Katigbak, Church, Guanzon-Lape~na, Carlota del Pilar, 2002). The (Nscb.gov.ph, 2014) states that in 2005-2006 2,483,6 45 To determine whether the students’ college education impacted on the test results a second test should be conducted on people who do not possess such education. Bibiliography Merriam-webster.com, (2014). Personality test Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. [online] Available at: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/personality test [Accessed 26 Apr. 2014]. 2 Katigbak, M. S., Church, A., Guanzon-Lapeà ±a, M., Carlota, A. J., del Pilar, G. H. (2002). Are indigenous personality dimensions culture specific? Philippine inventories and the five-factor model. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 82(1), 89-101. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.89 00 Ramà ­rez-Esparza, N., Gosling, S. D., Benet-Martà ­nez, V., Potter, J. P., Pennebaker, J. W. (2006). Do bilinguals have two personalities? A special case of cultural frame switching. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 99–120. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2004.09.001 Gurven, M., von Rueden, C., Massenkoff, M., Kaplan, H., Lero Vie, M. (2013). How universal is the Big Five? Testing the five-factor model of personality variation among forager–farmers in the Bolivian Amazon. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 104(2), 354-370. doi:10.1037/a0030841 0000 Ortiz, F. A., Church, A. T., Vargas-Flores, J. D. J., Ibà ¡Ãƒ ±ez-Reyes, J., Flores-Galaz, M., Iuit-Briceà ±o, J. I., Escamilla, J. M. (2007). Are indigenous personality dimensions culture-specific? Mexican inventories and the five-factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 618–649. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.07.002 00000 Guanzon-Lapeà ±a,M. A.,Church, A. T.,Carlota, A. J., Katigbak,M. S. ( 1998). Cross-Cultural Assessment and Measurement Issues Christopher J. Mushquash and Dana L. Bova The Ideas of Frantz Fanon and Culturally Safe Practices for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People in Australia Issues in Mental Health Assessmentwith Indigenous Australians Neil Drew, Yolonda Adams and Roz Walker http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/personality%20test There has been debate between psychologist on whether standardized personality tests such as the Big Five inventory I are suitable and produce high internal reliability in relation to cross cultural examinations. The main facets of their arguement state, (a) traits and behaviour may be vastly different across cultures, (b) the researchers are basing their experiments of western qualities (Church, in press; Enriquez, 1979). Across varied cultures in developed worlds the MMF displays a consistency and reliability amongst the five measurements, however it has been observed that extraversion and agreeableness measurements can be distorted by specific cultural traits. (Ortiz et al., 2007; Rolland, 2002). 355 It is apparent that only two factors seem to possess an internal reliability evident in the husband spouse category cross-cultural generality of the â€Å"Big Seven† model: Imported and indigenous 5model was difficult hard to determine language Spanish personality constructs. Journal of Personality, 65, 567–need an adaptation 598. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00327.x De Raad, B. (1994). An expedition in search of a fifth universal factor: Key lexical only gave what researchers chose, not from the issues in the lexical approach. European Journal of Personality, 8,communites understanding 229–250. doi:10.1002/per.2410080403 Journal of Personality, 12, 75–101. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099- 0984(199803/04)12:2_75::AID-PER288_3.0.CO;2-H An alternative taxonomic study of personality-descriptive adjectives in the Italian language. Europeanhow language helps Rolland, J. P. (2002). Cross-cultural generalizability of the five-factor model of personality. In R. R. McCrae J. Allik (Eds.), The five-factor model of personality across cultures (pp. 7–28). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic. Rolland, J. P. (2002). Cross-cultural generalizability of the five-factor model of personality. In R. R. McCrae J. Allik (Eds.), The five-factor model of personality across cultures (pp. 7–28). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic. McCrae, R. R. (2002). Cross-cultural research on the five-factor model of personality. In W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes, D. N. Sattler (Eds.), Online readings in psychology and culture (Unit 6, Chapter 1). Retrieved from http://www.wwu.edu/~culture 1 Wiggins, J. S., Trapnell, P. D. ( 1997). Personality structure: The return of the Big Five. In R.Hogan, J.Johnson, S.Briggs ( Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 737– 765). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. To further determine the effectiveness of standardised personality test the Junior Eyesenck Personality Questionnaire (Jr EPQ; Eysenck and Eysenck 1975), Lie test and Florida key (FK; Purkey and Cage 1973) were administered to 113 students from two elementary schools and 42 ninth graders in high school. Data was categorised into variables consisting of sex, school and race results were examined variance. The data shows differences in the mean with several test score outside the suitable bracket, it is noted that under the variable race, aboriginal people scored 5.8 which is out of the .05 level, the data between the two groups proved to be quite different. Although results were provided and proved to be similar between the two groups, when analysing the mean score attention arises when understanding

Marketing Mix Nikon Essay

1.0 INTRODUCTION Alhamdulillah, first of all I would like to thank God as finally I were able to finish my assignment that have been given to me by sports facilities’ lecturer, Encik Noorazlan Bin Ab Aziz. He always listen and gives advice to me, he also taught me how to express my idea, showed me a different way to approach a research problem and need to be persistent to accomplish any goal. He always give me supports and guide to me how to do our assignment in purpose to produce a good outcome from research that been studied. Luckily, all the problems can be settled down and I were able to adapt properly and wisely. Besides that, big thank I address to the staffs Kelab Golf Pantai Sri Tujuh, Tumpat Kelantan because without their guides my project cannot be done properly like this. Place that I had choosed for this assignment is Pantai Sri Tujuh, Tumpat Kelantan. Finally, thank to my friend, my classmate, my sister that always help me finished my assignment, helping me anytime and solving my unsolved problem. Hope that all the effort will give a lot of benefits to me and also to my assignment. 2.0 BACKGROUND OF PANTAI SRI TUJUH 3.0 OBJECTIVES The objective of this club is to provide social and recreational activities for members. It is also to conduct major national and local competitions as development process to upgrade skill and status of the members in golf. This club also play role to establish and conduct development programmes for youth and aspiring members.As for the other golf club this club try to achieve the vision to be a well-known club and promote the sport of golf to the local as the golf is not popular like football to the local.So the management of this club want to address the local about the golf so that sport of golf can get its place in the local citizens’ heart. 4.0 The organization chart This is the organization chart for Pantai Sri Tujuh Golf Club. This chart is not fully finish due to the staff changes and the improvement of the organization system in order to compete with other successful club and achieve the objective of this club. 5.0 Facilities and services offered in Pantai Sri Tujuh * Chalets * Management office * Surau * Toilets * Air conditioner * Sport light * Parking area * Cafe * Store for equipment * Dustbins * Television * Fire extinguisher * Post guard * Bunker * Diving range * Waterpark 6.0 SOME EXAMPLES OF FACILITIES AND SERVICES Chalets Toilet Cafe Management Office Spotlight Air-conditioner Lobby Hall 7.0 SOME EXAMPLES OF EQUIPMENTS 8.0 LEGAL RESPONSIBILITY Pantai Sri Tujuh Golf Club is continuously looking into the future growth of the company and its people who will make it happen. We’re looking to build up a world-class team of experienced and motivated individuals, who will bring their expertise to maximize the value of our technology and business development activities. 8.1 Responsibilities : * The management provide a locker for the player * They provide rules for player and the spectators while playing golf * They briefing about how to play golf for the new player * Serving meal for the players 9.0 MANAGING FACILITIES 9.1 supervision Every 2 days they will send report to supervisor about daily usage of equipment. For example how many balls the player used. They also do scheduling work 2 people in morning session and 2 people in night session. 9.2 Booking To play in this club, players do not have to book. They can play on the spot and anytime they want except on Saturday. This is because on that day the VIP from secretary of Kelantan have booked the golf club for the VIP. 9.3 Schedulling This club opened from 8.00 a.m to 12.00 a.m. there have two shift. One shift starts from 8.00 a.m to 5.00 p.m. around this time the customers or the players can contact the organizer at Pantai Sri Tujuh. After 5pm till 12am the customers can ask the driving range crew for any reservation or wanted to play in the golf field. 9.4 Package * RM 9 for 100 balls * RM5 for 50 balls 10.0 FACILITY SYSTEM AND OPERATION THE FAN * They provide air conditioner in meeting room, management office, surau, THE LIGHTNING * They provide this lightning, pendaflour at surau, toilet, management office. That’s means each corner have one pendaflour. SPOTLIGHT * Spotlight are available for lighting purpose. 11.0 FACILITY MAINTENANCE Every day, employees will check the equipment and count the ball to make sure all the equipments are in good condition and are complete. If the balls are not enough, they have to report to their supervisor to supply the balls for the player. Sometimes player will hit the ball outside the driving range. The stuff on the duty has to collect all the balls and record the data in maintenance book. Every three days a week, supervisor will check the data and give a comment and feedback. This is the store that keeps all the equipments. 12.0 RISK MANAGEMENT AND SECURITY This is a picture to remind the visitors and customers on certain things which are: * The customers are not allowed to bring their own golf ball. * They are not allowed to collect the cluttered golf ball on the field. * They are not allowed to hit the ball in front of the driving range. * Any injury are not in the responsibility of the golf club * They are not allow wearing slippers but are necessary to wear a proper golf shoes during playing golf. The golf club promotes CCTV to manage their security department. This because, the operation hour of this club house open till 12am. They also provided 24hours guard to keep the golf club in safe. Those people who got nothing to do with the golf club or do not have any proper appointment are allowed in the area of Pantai Sri Tujuh Golf Club. This is a simple prompt for all the customers and visitors on the rules and regulations of the field. A good facility must have this kind of rules and regulation to guide people on how to use the facil ity correctly. 13.0 FACILITY EVENTS AND ACTIVITY MANAGEMENT 13.1 Some events from the others management The above picture shows some of the souvenirs from other management that collaborates with Pantai Sri Tujuh Golf Club. Usually the events are participating by the staff of the golf club itself. As you can see, Pantai Sri Tujuh Golf Club love to team up with other organization because this golf club really appreciate their working partner and they respect them as their customers. 13.2 VIP Club Members This is the Board Members of Pantai Sri Tujuh Golf Club. The one in the blue shirt is the secretary of Kelantan. He always comes to this golf club to play every Saturday. They always organized some events within the VIP committee. They love to come here because of the view and the scenery. The exciting view of this golf club is facing the ocean so it attracts not only VIP but the normal people who love to play golf.The surrounding around this golf club provide the members fresh air and condition. 14.0 CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, I chosed Pantai Sri Tujuh Golf Club because of the view and scenery. The exciting view of this golf club is facing the ocean so it attracts not only VIP but the normal people who love to play golf. People who are check in at Pantai Sri Tujuh chalet also can spend their time at this golf club. This golf club provides many facilities about golf. It have bunker, driving range, and. Near the golf club there has a water park which is only provided for children. The customers no need to worry about the safety of their children as there has a guard to keep his eye on them. There also have chalets for the visitors and customers to stay at Pantai Sri Tujuh. In front of the chalet there also has a hall for the visitors to make barbeque, birthday party or what else. With this facilities provided, the customers will satisfied and feel more comfortable to come to this club besides they feel safe. Therefore, this golf club is still in progress and will upgrade the incomplete facilit ies. The manager wants to make this golf club more official and famous among the people in this country.So that this club becomes a well-known club in this country of Malaysia.With such a vision no wonder in a few years the PGA Tours will held in Kelantan specifically at Pantai Seri Tujuh Golf Club. 15.0 REFERENCES Persons that I interviewed at Pantai Seri Tujuh Gof Club : 1.Mr. Khairul Ahmad 2. Mr. Khairuliswadi Bin Ali 3.Mr. Mohd Faisal Bin Rosnan 4.Mr. Mohd Syukri Bin Salleh 5.Mr, Baharuddin Bin Ismail 16.0 APPENDIX

Is Sociology a Science

Is Sociology a science? This paper will aim to explore the question ‘Is Sociology a science? ’ We will explore the definitions of Science and Sociology and then go onto examine various perspectives and theories surrounding the subject heading. Sociologists such as Durkheim, Comte and Weber will be examined. This paper is intended as an overview of two different schools of thought, those of positivist and anti-positivist approaches I will outline the main principals for each Sociologist covered. I will then give my personal views on the question, and attempt to answer it within my conclusion. Firstly, in order to examine the essay title it must be laid out exactly what we mean by ‘Science’ and ‘Sociology’ Science definition. Science is, according to the Oxford dictionary 2002 â€Å"The systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiments†. Sociology definition. Sociology on the other hand is described as, according to the Hutchins encyclopaedia , â€Å"the systematic study of the origin of human society, in particular of social order and social change, social conflict and social problems. It studies institutions such as the family, law and the church, as well as concepts such as the norm, role, and culture. Sociology attempts to study people in their social environment according to underlying moral, philosophical and political codes of behaviour. † There are various ‘schools of thought’ when it comes to answering the question we are debating. This paper will take a brief look at approaches such as positivist and anti-positivist approaches. It is often debated that thee are two separate schools of thought when discussing Sociology. There is the first notion that Sociology is based on fact and figures using quantitive data and analysis. The second suggestion is that Sociology is based on qualitative data and is surrounded by the need to understand why’s, where’s and how’s that make up society. It is only right to start with the views of Emile Durkheim, who is seen as some, the father of sociology and one of the greatest positivists of all time. The term ‘positivist’ simply relates to a person/group of sociologists whom believe that Sociology to be a science ie quantative data analysis He expressed the need for quantitive data and in depth analysis in order to gain a true insight. He appreciated the fact that data and results were an accurate way of analysing and assessing the world and he applied these principals to the examination of society. In his text ‘The Rules of Sociological Methods’ (first published in 1895) Durkheim set out how he believed logic and methodology was the key to the successful study of ‘sociology’. Emile Durkheim carried out what could be described as a famous study where he studied the suicide rates of European countries. This process weighted heavily on analysis of data and actual facts, just as science is based on facts. Durkheim’s argument was that any theory should be backed up with evidence. This evidence could only be found by the gathering and analysis of data. He believed that the correct route was to gather the data and develop theories that supported that evidence. Positivists view things â€Å"in the same state of mind as the physicist, chemist or physiologist when he probes into a still unexplored region of the scientific domain† (Durkheim 1964: xiv). Durkheim is what we would call a ‘Positivist’. Positivists believe that there are many similarities to the research methods embraced by scientists. When we consider this fact is it very easy to state that a posivitist will only study when its subjects and analysis can be quantified ie they are measurable, and can be observed and reported on. Auguste Comte, whom is arguably one of the first Sociologists, sought an empirical way of thinking towards sociological issues . Comte states that sociology should only be concerned with matters where you can get results based on data collation and facts- not based on assumption. Comte believed it was possible to have a good handle on the prediction of further trends and patterns within society. Empirical evidence is the key in positivism. Comte argued that positivism goes through three stages, † the law of the three stages†. It ‘claims that human efforts to understand the human world have passed through theological, metaphysical and positive stages. ‘ (Giddens, 2006, page 11) Now we will go on to examine the ‘other sides of the coin’ and look at the subjectivists’ and realists sociologists’ theories regarding sociology as a science. Various writers could be seen to be labelled anti-positivist, or believers that sociology is not a science. Such sociologists believe that the researcher should concern themselves with human cultural norms, values and processes that are viewed from a subjective perspective. Weber (1864-1920) defined sociology as ‘a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order to thereby arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects’ (1964 p88). Weber was one of the founders of the â€Å"Verstehen† method, along with Simmel. Verstehen simply means â€Å"understanding† or †interpretation†. This method involves an outsider attempting to relate to a person or persons from a specific group of people from their point of view. The realists approach to Sociology generally consist of accepting that there are differences between science and sociology – but it should be mentioned that this approach does allow for a social science. Andrew Sayer (1992) expressed differences between ‘open and closed systems as arenas of study’ (Sociology in focus 638)A good example of this ‘closed system’ would be a science lab where conditions can be heavily controlled, this gives way to fixed conditions that can be maintained or fluctuated by the lab. It has to be noted that a large amount of scientific research takes place outside of a controlled environment and this would be classed as an ‘open system’ Sayer argues that the behaviour and interaction of human beings takes place in open arenas and therefore the results cannot be predicted with any accuracy attached to it. But realists do not rule out completely the fact that sociology is indeed a science. Realists can be perceived to argue that the study named sociology could be based on the same principals as ‘science’ in the fact that both are concerned with exploring and evaluating an end roduct. Ray Pawson described the notion that there are two separate types of sociology as the ‘methodological myth’. He argues that two sociologies do not exist and that sociology is made up from a wide range of opinions Conclusion It has been shown within the context of this paper that Sociology can be viewed from both perspectives ie. As a science and t he opposing view that it cannot be classed as a science. From a personal perspective I believe that Sociology is indeed a science, if carried out in its ‘true sense’. In order for sociologists to be taken seriously in the world we must quantify what we are saying. This must be done with the assistance of data and observation, then opinions must be formed based on this data and facts we have collated. It is simply not good enough to provide readers with ideas of what may be true, as this is surely just opinion, rather than fact! If sociology was solely about opinions rather than showing empirical evidence to back up ones claims then surely each and every individual on the planet could rightly call themselves sociologists.. Bibliography Bilton, T, Bonnett, K et al (1996) Introductory Sociology 3rd Edition. Mc Millan Press: London http://sociology. org. uk/atssp7. htm. Accessed 14/2/2010 Cotgrove, S (1967) The Science of Society: An Introduction to Sociology, Allen & Unwin: London Hutchins encyclopaedia Keat & Urry (1975) Social Theory as Science, Routledge: London Oxford Dictionary ( 2002) Taylor et all (2000) Sociology in focus Causeway press:London www. jstor. org/stable/4026005 accessed 1/2/10 http://www. emile-durkheim. com/ accessed 18/2/10 Is Sociology a Science Is Sociology a science? This paper will aim to explore the question ‘Is Sociology a science? ’ We will explore the definitions of Science and Sociology and then go onto examine various perspectives and theories surrounding the subject heading. Sociologists such as Durkheim, Comte and Weber will be examined. This paper is intended as an overview of two different schools of thought, those of positivist and anti-positivist approaches I will outline the main principals for each Sociologist covered. I will then give my personal views on the question, and attempt to answer it within my conclusion. Firstly, in order to examine the essay title it must be laid out exactly what we mean by ‘Science’ and ‘Sociology’ Science definition. Science is, according to the Oxford dictionary 2002 â€Å"The systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiments†. Sociology definition. Sociology on the other hand is described as, according to the Hutchins encyclopaedia , â€Å"the systematic study of the origin of human society, in particular of social order and social change, social conflict and social problems. It studies institutions such as the family, law and the church, as well as concepts such as the norm, role, and culture. Sociology attempts to study people in their social environment according to underlying moral, philosophical and political codes of behaviour. † There are various ‘schools of thought’ when it comes to answering the question we are debating. This paper will take a brief look at approaches such as positivist and anti-positivist approaches. It is often debated that thee are two separate schools of thought when discussing Sociology. There is the first notion that Sociology is based on fact and figures using quantitive data and analysis. The second suggestion is that Sociology is based on qualitative data and is surrounded by the need to understand why’s, where’s and how’s that make up society. It is only right to start with the views of Emile Durkheim, who is seen as some, the father of sociology and one of the greatest positivists of all time. The term ‘positivist’ simply relates to a person/group of sociologists whom believe that Sociology to be a science ie quantative data analysis He expressed the need for quantitive data and in depth analysis in order to gain a true insight. He appreciated the fact that data and results were an accurate way of analysing and assessing the world and he applied these principals to the examination of society. In his text ‘The Rules of Sociological Methods’ (first published in 1895) Durkheim set out how he believed logic and methodology was the key to the successful study of ‘sociology’. Emile Durkheim carried out what could be described as a famous study where he studied the suicide rates of European countries. This process weighted heavily on analysis of data and actual facts, just as science is based on facts. Durkheim’s argument was that any theory should be backed up with evidence. This evidence could only be found by the gathering and analysis of data. He believed that the correct route was to gather the data and develop theories that supported that evidence. Positivists view things â€Å"in the same state of mind as the physicist, chemist or physiologist when he probes into a still unexplored region of the scientific domain† (Durkheim 1964: xiv). Durkheim is what we would call a ‘Positivist’. Positivists believe that there are many similarities to the research methods embraced by scientists. When we consider this fact is it very easy to state that a posivitist will only study when its subjects and analysis can be quantified ie they are measurable, and can be observed and reported on. Auguste Comte, whom is arguably one of the first Sociologists, sought an empirical way of thinking towards sociological issues . Comte states that sociology should only be concerned with matters where you can get results based on data collation and facts- not based on assumption. Comte believed it was possible to have a good handle on the prediction of further trends and patterns within society. Empirical evidence is the key in positivism. Comte argued that positivism goes through three stages, † the law of the three stages†. It ‘claims that human efforts to understand the human world have passed through theological, metaphysical and positive stages. ‘ (Giddens, 2006, page 11) Now we will go on to examine the ‘other sides of the coin’ and look at the subjectivists’ and realists sociologists’ theories regarding sociology as a science. Various writers could be seen to be labelled anti-positivist, or believers that sociology is not a science. Such sociologists believe that the researcher should concern themselves with human cultural norms, values and processes that are viewed from a subjective perspective. Weber (1864-1920) defined sociology as ‘a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order to thereby arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects’ (1964 p88). Weber was one of the founders of the â€Å"Verstehen† method, along with Simmel. Verstehen simply means â€Å"understanding† or †interpretation†. This method involves an outsider attempting to relate to a person or persons from a specific group of people from their point of view. The realists approach to Sociology generally consist of accepting that there are differences between science and sociology – but it should be mentioned that this approach does allow for a social science. Andrew Sayer (1992) expressed differences between ‘open and closed systems as arenas of study’ (Sociology in focus 638)A good example of this ‘closed system’ would be a science lab where conditions can be heavily controlled, this gives way to fixed conditions that can be maintained or fluctuated by the lab. It has to be noted that a large amount of scientific research takes place outside of a controlled environment and this would be classed as an ‘open system’ Sayer argues that the behaviour and interaction of human beings takes place in open arenas and therefore the results cannot be predicted with any accuracy attached to it. But realists do not rule out completely the fact that sociology is indeed a science. Realists can be perceived to argue that the study named sociology could be based on the same principals as ‘science’ in the fact that both are concerned with exploring and evaluating an end roduct. Ray Pawson described the notion that there are two separate types of sociology as the ‘methodological myth’. He argues that two sociologies do not exist and that sociology is made up from a wide range of opinions Conclusion It has been shown within the context of this paper that Sociology can be viewed from both perspectives ie. As a science and t he opposing view that it cannot be classed as a science. From a personal perspective I believe that Sociology is indeed a science, if carried out in its ‘true sense’. In order for sociologists to be taken seriously in the world we must quantify what we are saying. This must be done with the assistance of data and observation, then opinions must be formed based on this data and facts we have collated. It is simply not good enough to provide readers with ideas of what may be true, as this is surely just opinion, rather than fact! If sociology was solely about opinions rather than showing empirical evidence to back up ones claims then surely each and every individual on the planet could rightly call themselves sociologists.. Bibliography Bilton, T, Bonnett, K et al (1996) Introductory Sociology 3rd Edition. Mc Millan Press: London http://sociology. org. uk/atssp7. htm. Accessed 14/2/2010 Cotgrove, S (1967) The Science of Society: An Introduction to Sociology, Allen & Unwin: London Hutchins encyclopaedia Keat & Urry (1975) Social Theory as Science, Routledge: London Oxford Dictionary ( 2002) Taylor et all (2000) Sociology in focus Causeway press:London www. jstor. org/stable/4026005 accessed 1/2/10 http://www. emile-durkheim. com/ accessed 18/2/10

What to Do With Surface Tree Roots in Your Yard

Tree and yard owners are often faced with the problem of a trees exposed surface roots. Tree roots that grow on the surface are difficult to mow or walk over and can affect the growth and health of nearby grass and ground covers. The usual response to remedy the situation is either to cut the roots or add fill soil over the roots and then replanting grass or ground cover. However, cutting out surface tree roots  is not advisable as tree roots offer structural support and provide a nutrient flow that supports growth and vigor. When damaged, tree roots attract pests and pathogens. Trees that experience root removal or serious root damage can express top canopy death on the side the roots were harmed. Removing roots can also introduce rot into the root, the base, and the trunk of your tree. Adding supplemental soil to cover roots can also harm your tree. You can, however, add an  additional cover like mulch over roots to smooth out the surface of the landscape. Adding extra dirt,  on the other hand, can reduce the concentration of soil oxygen needed for roots to survive, and trees may begin to show symptoms immediately or decline over time upon covering them. Proper Treatments for Surface Roots Ultimately, the best advice for gardening or landscaping in a yard that has surface tree roots is to leave them alone and incorporate them into your designs. Dont grow your garden or introduce small ornamentals near a trees surface root system (its life-support system, essentially) as introduced extra vegetative competition may or may not survive against these large trees. Having plants that heavily compete for nutrients and light is never good within the trees critical root zone—the tree may not suffer but the cover plant will lose vigor,  probably struggle to thrive, and will cost you the price of the plant plus the planting time.   A better way to deal with surface roots is to cut a bed around the offending root system and cover with coarse mulch, making sure to not add more than an inch of extra soil. Trying to establish even a patch of tolerant grass or ground cover among the surface roots can often be difficult, and  it might actually be impossible to do because of natural tree root toxins produced by certain tree species. Symptoms of Tree Root Damage and Fill Injury In addition to the root injury itself, other visible symptoms of injury may include small, off-color leaves, premature fall color, suckering along the main trunk, dead twigs throughout the canopy of the tree, or even death of large branches. The types of tree injury will vary by  tree species, tree age, the health of the tree, root depth, type of fill and drainage. Trees that are usually severely injured by additional fill include  sugar maple,  beech,  dogwood, and many oaks,  pines,  and spruces.   Birch and hemlock seem less affected by root  fill  damage than other species, but elms, willow, London plane tree,  pin oak,  and locust seem to be the least affected. Older trees and those in a weakened state are more likely to be injured than younger, more vigorous trees when it comes to soil fill damage.